tamadun

The Emergence of the Rule of the Abbasid

Thursday, 25 September 2014

The emergence of the Abbasid rule was the beginning of a new order based agricultural economy and trade as well as the ruling power of the cosmopolitan Yemeni Arabs who opposed the Umayyad and mawali class derived from the Persians, Egyptians, Berbers, and other things. They are involved in the Abbasid revolution and successfully overthrew the Umayyad in 750 CE. The capital of Islamic rule in Ambar and later moved to Baghdad.

Therefore, the focus of political Islam moved from the Mediterranean to Syria and Mesopotamia. Political system and the rule has been much influenced by the Persian culture. Baghdad became the center of economic activity and the intellectual and reached a peak of excellence in the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid and his son al-Mamun. Figures famous Abbasid caliph, Caliph Abu Abbas Al Saffah, Caliph Harun Al Rashid and others.

The Caliph:

o Caliph is the highest authority in the structure of the Abbasid government. Caliph position autocratic and all orders arising therefrom. In addition to the secular power, the caliph had spiritual authority (divine authority). At the level of backwardness of the Abbasid, Caliph position is maintained because it is the source of the validity of the authority and power of a person or a position.

Open the Administrative Policy:

o System Abbasid rule implies that the actual society. Abbasid government supported by a variety of people, especially Arabs and Persians and other nations. Although in the early stages of the Arab Abbasid Caliph of the line but the established position of caliph is Persian nation.

Bureaucratic System:

o During the Abbasid era, all matters relating to the administration carried out by a hierarchical bureaucracy. Sasanid government bureaucratic system modeled by a majority of officers drawn from the class mawali that Muslims are not of Arab descent. The important thing is the position of the chief vizier entire administrative machinery. During the Abbasid administration, some departments have established such accounts department, tax department, the postal department and so on.

Administration of Justice:

o In the course of his affairs handed over to judicial scholars appointed by the chief judge. Civil matters relating to the non-Muslims is up to the heads of their own religion, while Muslim matters dealt with by the judge. Appointment of judges based on a number of conditions such as adult male, Muslim, of sound mind, and experienced in the field of science.

Economic Management:

o Compared to the Umayyad, Abbasid rule promotes agriculture and industry to strengthen the economy of the empire. Peasant social status is enhanced by the provision of land ownership and the implementation of a more equitable tax system more fair. Economic development caused the birth of the ruling elite that does not depend on the descent, but based on knowledge and wealth of knowledge.

Policy Against Non-Muslims:

o Policy against the dhimmi (non-Muslims) are more open. They enjoy the freedom to practice their own religion. Often, they are taken to serve in the government bureaucracy. Compared with the Umayyad rule, these people enjoy the social status is much higher in the Abbasid era.

Upgrading intellectual:

o Translation, perkembagan of knowledge, and the birth of various denominations in the Abbasid period led to an increase in the standard of intellect. Abbasid period saw the translation of the works of Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and others in the Arabic language into the intermediate language throughout the Middle East. Schools and colleges established throughout the empire.

Malay Civilization

Malay civilization is the civilization that developed comprehensive Malay Malay language based upon the arrival and acceptance of Islam throughout the Malay region. Understanding of Malay civilization as a civilization in the Malay region is dependent on the understanding of Islamic civilization. This is due to the emergence of Malay civilization traced acceptance of Islam by the Malay community as a whole region.

Teaching Islamic faith by the missionaries of Islam throughout the Malay region progressively built the foundation of Malay civilization. This situation has stabilized, when the missionaries succeeded in attracting the Malay rulers. Little by little the Malay rulers turned to Islamic beliefs.

Acceptance of this tremendous impact on the construction of Malay civilization as a civilization menghubungjalin diverse ethnic Malays. For example, the version written in Pasai, Sumatra has accepted the Islamic faith. Likewise Parameswara in Malacca was willing to accept the faith of Islam by Syed Abdul Aziz for himself, his family and later the Malay community progressively follow the monarchs.

Malay civilization built by the Islamic philosophy digested in the world view of the Malays. Every movement, behavior and effort Malay attributed to Islamic philosophy. Thus, the root of Malay civilization is Islamic civilization. This is a major relevance because Islam has managed to change beliefs, thoughts, tastes and behavior of the Malay community in the country and the region. According to Mohd Taib Osman (1988: 2);

"The culture of the Malays; connectivity and changes happen every time the arrival of civilizations outside influence, first of Indian civilization, and civilization of Islam and began a century ago, we in the West as a whole, from the modern Western civilization. At every point the arrival of outside influences, there are features that have been available memperlanjutkan culture as well as the emergence of features that establish change ".

The presence of Islam in the Malay world has brought great changes to the values and culture of the Malays. Transitional style of thinking, social patterns, and interactions among the Malays muamalat and surrounding communities have diungguli by the Islamic tradition, so that elements of Hinduism, Buddhism almost eroded the lifestyle and mindset of the Malays.

Even so, the Malays do not completely reject the traditional Hindu values and practices, and they will maintain the elements that do not conflict with Islamic teachings. Syed Muhammad Naquib insists that Islam has changed the lives and physical Malay Malaysia and Indonesia. While Mohd Taib Osman was of the opinion that the advent of Islam to the archipelago has brought changes to make it part of the Islamic world (Ismail Hamid, 1991: 60). The changes mean the two figures above can be seen from all areas of life, such as language, literature, intellectual property, law, faith, politics, customs and art.

Malay civilization does not take into account the contribution of some of the early government of the Malay kingdom of Srivijaya in Palembang as, in Kedah and Langkasuka Kingdom of Majapahit in Java that was built ahead of Malay civilization, even though history proves the Malay language began to be used much earlier than the emergence of Malay civilization.

This is because early civilizations did not have a chain of Malay civilization that emerged after the existence of the influence of Islam in the Malay region. Bond chain disconnected because government policy on early development and community have a different cord with Malay civilization that emerged later. Cord is defined as Islam.

Sumber Link : link

Tamadun Mesir

Tuesday, 16 September 2014

Mengikut Herodotus, negeri Mesir ialah anugerah dari Sungai Nil. Sungai ini mengalir di kawasan tandus yang berbatu-bata membawa bersama-samanya lumpur-lumpur yang mendak di tebingnya. Kejadian banjir telah menyuburkan kedua-dua tebing sungai. Selain itu, Sungai Nil telah membekalkan air untuk tanaman yang ditanam dan bekalan makanan laut serta menjadi alat pengangkutan bagi penduduk. Adalah dipercayai orang Mesir datang ke kawasan Sungai Nil dari Timur melalui Aden pada kira-kira 5000 SM. Apabila mereka mendapati delta Sungai Nil ini sangat subur, mereka mula membentuk perkampungan di sini. Adalah dipercayai juga, kewujudan kerajaan di Lembah Nil ini bermula sebelum tahun 3100 SM.

Ciri-ciri

Pembentukan Bandar

Dipercayai orang Mesir datang ke kawasan Sungai Nil pada kira-kira 5000 SM. Orang ini bergerak merata-rata di kawasan ini pada permulaan. Apabila mereka sedar betapa suburnya delta di sebelah Utara Sungai Nil, mereka pun menetap di sini. Di sini, mereka menjalankan aktiviti pertanian. Suatu perkampungan kecil dibentuk. Perkampungan ini kemudian mengalami urbanisasi dan membentuk negara kota yang mempunyai ramai penduduk, merupakan pusat perdagangan dan sebagainya. Memphis dan Thebes merupakan contoh negara kota yang terkenal di Tamadun Mesir ini.

Pembentukan Kerajaan

Di sepanjang zaman lampau ini, perkelahian sering berlaku di antara penduduk yang tinggal di sepanjang Lembah Sungai Nil. Setelah mereka menjadi lebih mahir membuat senjata, mereka ini dapat mengatasi jiran-jiran mereka. Apabila satu-satu puak berjaya mengatasi puak lain, puak-puak yang dikalahkan itu akan dipaksa mengiktiraf totem (simbol) puak pemenang itu sebagai tuhan yang maha berkuasa. Lebih kurang dalam 4300 SM, dua puak telah menghapus puak-puak yang lain dan masing-masing membentuk kerajaan di sebelah Utara dan Selatan Lembah Nil. Lama-kelamaan, Kerajaan Hulu dan Hilir bercantum menjadi satu dan diperintah oleh seorang raja.

Wujudnya Organisasi Sosial

Kedudukan sosial seseorang individu dalam organisasi sosial Tamadun Mesir tidak berubah beribu-ribu tahun lamanya. Firaun atau Pharoah dianggap sebagai anak tuhan matahari Amon-Re. Baginda mempunyai kedudukan yang tertinggi. Selepas Firaun, golongan pemerintah yang terdiri daripada pendeta dan bangsawan menduduki tempat kedua. Mereka berkuasa sebagai pentadbir di negara kota. Seterusnya, peniaga, artisan dan tabib menduduki tempat yang ketiga. Mereka merupakan kelas pertengahan yang mempunyai bilangan yang amat terhad. Selepas kelas pertengahan ialah golongan petani yang hidup secara sederhana. Hamba berada di tempat yang paling bawah yang terdiri daripada orang tawanan perang. Mereka hidup dengan amat menderita. Golongan wanita juga mempunyai kedudukan yang istimewa dalam masyarakat Mesir sekiranya dia melahirkan banyak orang anak.

Perkembangan Teknologi

Sumbangan orang Mesir yang amat penting ialah dalam bidang astronomi, takwim (kalendar) dan matematik. Bidang astronomi maju kerana para pendeta dapat mengkaji bumi, langit, peredaran bulan, bintang dan planet-planet lain. Ahli kaji bintang melahirkan takwim yang mempunyai 12 bulan dengan setiap bulan mengandungi 30 hari dan 5 hari lagi ditambah kepada bulan terakhir atau 365 hari setahun. 12 bulan ini kemudian dibahagikan kepada 3 musim iaitu musim banjir, menanam dan menuai. Mereka juga mencipta jam yang menggunakan bayangan matahari dan air. Dalam bidang matematik, orang Mesir mengetahui cara mengukur keluasan empat segi tepat, bulatan, menghitung isipadu dan silinder. Pengetahuan ini membolehkan mereka mengukur blok batu yang digunakan untuk membina piramid. Dalam bidang kejuruteraan, kebolehan mereka dapat dilihat melalui pembinaan piramid. Alat-alat mudah seperti pahat, tembaga, baji dan tukul batu digunakan. Dalam bidang perubatan, mereka mempelajari teknik-teknik mengawet mayat dan fungsi tubuh manusia. Mereka juga menghasilkan sebuah buku perubatan mengenai pembedahan.

Pengkhususan Kerja

Kewujudan organisasi sosial telah mewujudkan pengkhususan kerja bagi setiap lapisan masyarakat. Firaun bertugas memerintah negara Mesir dan berkuasa mutlak serta mempunyai kuasa penuh ke atas tanah air di Mesir. Baginda memerintah dengan dasar kuku besi. Dasar kuku besi bermaksud rakyat dipaksa patuh kepada Firaun dan rakyat dipaksa membayar cukai. Golongan pendeta bertanggungjawab menjalankan upacara untuk mententeramkan tuhan mereka. Golongan bangsawan pula menjadi gabenor daerah, pegawai istana atau pemungut cukai. Kelas pertengahan pula menjadi peniaga, tabib ataupun artisan. Golongan petani bertugas untuk menanam tanaman seperti gandum dan barli. Mereka dikehendaki menyerahkan 2/3 daripada hasil tanaman kepada kerajaan sebagai cukai. Hamba pula bekerja sebagai petani atau bekerja di kuil atau di projek pengairan.

Wujudnya Kepercayaan

Agama dan kepercayaan memainkan peranan penting dalam kehidupan orang Mesir. Masyarakat di Mesir percaya bahawa alam semesta dikuasai oleh tuhan atau dewa-dewi yang menentukan hidup atau mati segala-gala benda dalam alam semesta. Mereka memuja semangat tanaman dan binatang seperti kucing untuk mendapatkan kebahagiaan kepada mereka. Tuhan yang disembah oleh orang Mesir termasuk Amon-Re (matahari), Osiris (Sungai Nil), Isis (Bulan), Nut (langit), dan Shu (udara). Orang Mesir juga percaya kepada kehidupan selepas mati. Mereka percaya orang yang mati akan hidup dengan penuh kebahagiaan di akhirat, maka roh mesti dibekalkan dengan segala keperluan dan barang kemas. Mereka memumiakan mayat dan mayat itu disemadikan bersama-sama dengan segala keperluan dan barang kemas. Dalam proses memumiakan mayat, mayat disumbat dengan garam dan kemudiannya dibalut dengan kain. Golongan pemerintah pula membina piramid untuk menyimpan mumia dan dijadikan sebagai tempat roh bersemadi. Piramid juga digunakan untuk menyimpan harta Firaun yang mati. Piramid yang terkenal ialah Piramid Agung yang dibina di Giza untuk Firaun Khufu.

Wujudnya Bahasa dan Tulisan

Pada tamadun awal Mesir, tulisan digunakan untuk menyimpan rekod tentang upacara keagamaan dan harta yang ada di kuil-kuil. Bentuk tulisan yang dicipta oleh para pendeta ini dikenali sebagai hieroglif. Tulisan hieroglif berbentuk gambar dan diukir pada batu atau kayu. Setelah membuat kertas daripada pokok papyrus, orang Mesir menulis dengan menggunakan dakwat dan berus.

Sumber Rujukan : Link

The Sumerian civilization emerged upon the flood plain of the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers about 4000 B.C. The social structure of the Sumerians was decidedly different from other societies of that and later times. The Sumerian communities were city states organized around a temple and ruled by a priesthood. The bulk of the people of the community were considered to be the servant-slaves of the god of the temple.

The insecurities of life justified the role of the priesthood. When calamities occured despite the best efforts of the priesthood this was explained as being the result of the actions of other gods acting in concert which over-ruled the wishes of the local god.

There was a class of craftsmen in addition to the priests and peasants. The craftmen devoted most of their time to producing things for either the temples or the warrior-soldiers which protected the temple community. The people were to devote their lives to propitiating the gods to prevent calamities from befalling the community.

The political structure of Sumer was independent city-states. The map shows the important communities. Note that in Sumerian times the Persian Gulf extended to the area of the city-states. Since then the rivers have filled in hundreds miles of Gulf and Ur which was once almost on the coast is hundreds of miles from the sea.

Along with the map of Sumer there is a schematic depiction of the layout of the city of Ur with a branch of the Euphrates River running through the city with a protected harbor at the city walls. There was another protected harbor at the city walls. The temple grounds were separated from the rest of the city.

The temple community city-states of Sumer did not form leagues and alliances until after the glory of the era of Sumer. With wars of defense the role of the priesthood declined relative to the role of the warriors. Eventually the dominance of the warriors was manifested in the rule of kings.

The origin of the Sumerians is uncertain. They apparently came from the south through the Persian Gulf. Their literature speaks of their homeland being Dilmun, which could have been one of the islands in the Persian Gulf such as Bahrain. But no ruins comparable in age and complexity to those of Sumer have been found in the proposed locations of Dilmun.

However the balance of the evidence is that Dilmun was the island of Bahrain.

The Sumerians apparently had practiced trading in their original homeland. The frequency of animal beings in the pantheon of their gods suggests some previous pastoral history. The Sumerian language is of no help in identifying their origins because it appears to be unrelated to any other language in the world. It is an agglutinating language like Turkish, Hungarian, Finnish and Inuit (Eskimo) statements are constructed by adding prefixes and suffixes onto the core wordIn particular, in about 2000 B.C. Sargon established an empire in Mesopotamia which included the area of Sumer. But long before Sargon's conquest Semitic peoples had been entering the area of Sumer.

Sumber link : link

Isu Soalan UPSR Bocor. Haji Darus Awang Kakitangan KPM Bongkar “Lubang” Berlakunya Kertas Soalan Bocor!

Monday, 15 September 2014

Sebenarnya isu soalan UPSR bocor telah lama “didendangkan” yang amna dipalu setiap tahun sejak dahulu lagi. Zaman dahulu kebanyakan sekolah-sekolah berprestasi tinggi mendapat soalan-soalan bocor atas nama “soalan spot”. Tetapi di zaman IT yang serba canggih, mudah dan pantas ini. Semua orang dapat dengan hanya satu KLIK sahaja. Kadang-kadang sukar untuk menilai mana satu pelajar dan murid yang benar-benar berkualiti dek kerana isu soalan UPSR bocor ini.

Yang memberikan soalan UPSR bocor aka soalan “spot” UPSR ini diberikan ganjaran “saguhati” atas nama jemputan dengan mengubah sedikit soalan-soalan yang asal. Erm….

Dan bersama-sama ini, Berita Semasa ingin kongsikan di sini pendapat & ulasan bernas daripada kakitangan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia yang bernama Haji Darus Awang disebalik isu soalan UPSR bocor 2014 kali ini yang mempunyai pendapat, pandangan daripada kaca mata beliau dan ada nasihat yang ingin dilontarkan kepada kita semua

Petang tadi anak saya yang kelapan bertanya: “pa betul ke soalan sains bocor, Shira dengar kawan-kawan beritahu soalan sains bocor”. Satu soalan pendek tetapi sukar juga untuk menjawabnya. Saya hanya beritahu: “esok Shira pergi aje ke sekolah, kalau ada periksa jawab elok-elok”. Anak pun mengangguk sahaja dengan penjelasan yang tidak menepati pertanyaan.

Begitulah dunia kanak-kanak hari ini. Mereka juga bermaklumat. Mereka boleh akses maklumat di hujung jari seperti orang dewasa. Anak kelapan saya memiliki kemahiran yang luar biasa dalam ilmu IT ini. Apa-apa sahaja barang elektronik seperti telefon bimbit, laptop atau apa jua gajet, mampu digunakanannya. Kita terkial-kila membaca “command” atau buku manual, tetapi anak hanya tekan sana sini sudah selesai.

Sudah lapan daripada sembilan anak saya menduduki UPSR. Seingat saya baru kali ini kes soalan UPSR bocor. Soalan PMR dan SPM telah acap kali bocor. Semasa Cambridge yang menyediakan soalan peperiksaan untuk negara kita, tidak pernah ada kes kebocoran soalan kerana tingginya integriti orang putih. Kanak-kanak yang masih mentah terpaksa berdepan dengan tekanan psikologi yang tinggi, Terutama jenis ibubapa yang terlalu mengharapkan kejayaan cemerlang dan luar biasa dari anak sekecil ini.

Saya sebenarnya tidak pernah pedulikan peperiksaan UPSR ini. Sedikit pun saya tidak ambil peduli berapa A yang bakal diperolehi oleh anak-anak. Ayat-ayat mudah saya katakan pada anak-anak, jika semua A pun bukan boleh terus masuk universiti. Semua subjek dapat A pun akan masuk tingkatan satu terlebih dahulu. Begitu juga dengan PMR. Saya juga tidak memberikan apa-apa tekanan pada anak-anak.

Jadi, anak-anak saya secara santai menduduki peperiksaan UPSR dan PMR. Sebabnya saya dan isteri tidak sedikit pun memberi tekanan kepada mereka. Mereka terlalu kanak-kanak untuk dipaksakan dengan kejayaan yang bukan-bukan. Sejujurnya saya mahu anak-anak membesar dengan cara semula jadi (natural), seperti zaman saya membesar dahulu. Biar mereka hidup dengan realiti zaman kanak-kanaknya.

Sistem pendidikan di negara ini telah meragut dan merampas zaman kanak-kanak secara keseluruhannya. Bertambah malang jika kedua ibubapa juga berperangai menekan anak-anak untuk lulus cemerlang. Pada mereka anak-anak yang cemerlang peperiksaan adalah kebanggaan kedua ibubapa, walaupun akhlaknya kurang cemerlang. Yang penting mereka berjaya dengan barisan semua A atau “straight A”. A adalah pengukur kecemerlangan walaupun akhlak tidak menjadi.

Perlu diingat, anak-anak bukan robot. Anak-anak kita adalah manusia yang punya jiwa dan perasaan. Jika mereka masih kanak-kanak, maka perasaan keanak-anakan itulah yang menjadi realiti hidup mereka. Sistem pendidikan kita hari ini mengajar kanak-kanak menjadi tua sebelum masanya. Zaman kanak-kanak mereka dirampas secara zalim dan kejam bersandarkan kecemerlangan akademik dan “straight A”.

Saya mendidik anak-anak dengan cara purba dan konservertif iaitu membiarkan kesemua anak-anak membesar secara “natural” seperti saya dibesarkan. Saya biarkan mereka bermain hujan dan panas. Mereka boleh bermain di longkang sambil tangkap ikan longkang dan banyak lagi kehidupan kanak-kanaknya dilayan seadanya. Mereka hidup santai dan ceria. Apabila menduduki peperiksaan mereka tetap berjaya cemerlang. Kesemua yang menduduki UPSR, PMR dan SPM berjaya dan cemerlang.

Kesemua mereka masih di bangku sekolah. Lima orang yang telah menduduki SPM, kini berada di universiti dalam dan luar negara di dalam pelbagai bidang profesional seperti perubatan, arkitek, kejuruteraan dan pensyarah. Yang sulung sedang menghabiskan pengajian sarjana. Saya tidak pernah menekan mereka di peringkat UPSR dan PMR. Jika mereka mahu tuisyen saya hantar, jika mereka tidak mahu, belajar sahaja di rumah. Mereka bebas memilih untuk belajar kelas tuisyen dan tiada paksaan.

Saya hanya fokus ketika di peringkat SPM. Di peringkat ini saya ingatkan mereka supaya lebih fokus pada masa depan. SPM adalah penentu untuk memasuki lebuhraya pendidikan peringkat tinggi. Bermula dengan diploma hingga ke peringkat doktor falsafah (Phd), itulah jalur pendidikan peringkat tinggi. Saya selalu ingatkan bahawa universiti berada di dalam diri, bukan di sekolah yang mereka duduki.

Sebab itu, sedikit pun saya tidak pernah ambil kisah tentang sekolah berasrama penuh. Ada anak-anak yang dapat memasuki asrama penuh untuk pengambilan tingkatan satu dan empat, tetapi mereka tidak pergi. Setakat ini, hanya anak ke empat memasuki tingkatan empat di asrama penuh dan anak ketujuh memasuki ketika tingkatan satu. Bukan kehendak saya dan isteri, tetapi itu kehendak dan pilihan mereka sendiri.

Maknanya kejayaan bukan di sekolah, tetapi di dalam diri mereka sendiri. Mereka yang mengurus kejayaan dengan bimbingan dan sokongan kita sebagai ibubapanya. Saya dan isteri sentiasa sibuk dengan tugasan kerja rasmi, Di waktu antara maghrib dan isyak ketika di bilik solat, saya bertanyakan tentang persekolahan mereka. Itu sahaja masa yang saya ada untuk memberi dorongan kepada mereka. Tetapi setiap malam kami bersolat hajat untuk kejayaan ahli keluarga. Inilah kekuatan luar biasa yang tiada tolok bandingnya.

Apabila terdengar cerita dan terbaca berita di dalam media sosial tentang soalan bocor, terfikir oleh saya soalan bocor atau integriti segelintir orang yang diamanahkan itu yang bocor. Kenapa boleh bocor. Apabila bocor mesti ada orang yang kena dipertanggungjawabkan di atas kebocoran ini. Kes seperti ini tidak sepatutnya berlaku. Kes ini lebih kepada bocor atau ketirisan integriti mereka ini.

Antaranya pencetak soalan, segelintir pegawai di Lembaga Peperiksaan KPM dan juga pegawai yang diamanahkan di Bilik Kebal setiap Pejabat Pendidikan Daerah (PPD). Saya bukan menuduh, tetapi kebocoran pasti bermula dari salah satu lubang di situ.

Agak lama juga saya bekerja di KPM Putrajaya. Sedikit sebanyak perkara-perkara dasar seperti ini saya tahu juga. Isunya lebih kepada integriti pegawai yang diamanahkan menggubal soalan, pencetak yang diamanahkan mencetak soalan dan pegawai yang diamanahkan menjaga Bilik Kebal. Mereka ini perlu dipertanggungjawab terlebih dahulu. Mereka telah mengharubirukan suasana ketenangan murid yang sedang menduduki UPSR. Kurang sungguh integriti segelintir mereka yang diamanahkan terhadap perkara-perkara yang sulit seperti soalan peperiksaan ini.

Namun begitu, kelihatan anak saya rileks dan santai sahaja. Sebabnya tiada apa-apa tekanan dari kami sebagai ibubapa kepadanya. Kami biarkan dia membesar dengan dunia kanak-kanaknya tanpa dirampas dengan meletakkan harapan yang menggunung tingginya. Sedangkan dia hanya seorang kanak-kanak. Saya mahu kesemua anak saya menikmati zaman kanak-kanaknya sebaik mungkin. Harapan yang terlalu tinggi menjadi tekanan kepada anak-anak kita. Mereka akan stress. Bertambah stress jika peperiksaan ditangguhkan.

Nampaknya isu soalan UPSR bocor tidak boleh dipandang ringan lagi. Teori sampaikan exam pun mahu bocor bocor lagi.

“If u have a good brain…would you bother?

Sumber Rujukan : link

The Art of the Umayyad Period

Monday, 8 September 2014

The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)

BRONZE (c.a 700)

EWER (8th–early 9th century)

After the death of Muhammad in 632, a series of four caliphs (Arabic: khalifa, "successor"), known as the Rightly Guided, succeeded. Under their command, the Arab armies carried the new faith from Arabia to the shores of the Mediterranean and to the eastern reaches of Iran. However, following the assassination of cAli ibn Abi Talib—Muhammad's cousin, son-in-law, and fourth caliph (r. 656–61)—in 661, Muawiyah, the governor of Syria under the Rightly Guided Caliphs, seized power and established the Umayyad caliphate, the first Islamic dynasty (661–750). During Muawiyah's reign (661–80), the seat of Islamic power was transferred from the Arabian Peninsula to Syria.

Under Muawiyah's successors, the important historic city of Damascus was transformed into the capital of an empire that extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River.

The Umayyad period is often considered the formative period in Islamic art. At first, even though Arabic became the official language and Islam the principal religion of the diverse lands unified under Umayyad rule, artists continued to work in their established manner. The main artistic influence came from the late antique classical naturalistic tradition, which had been prevalent on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. This was also supplemented by the more formal modes developed by the Byzantines and Sasanians, a factor that especially affected metalwork, textiles, and the depiction of animal, vegetal, and figural motifs. With time, however, artists developed new techniques, forms, and decorative conventions that distinguished their works from earlier ones. Thus, through a process of adoption, adaptation, and creation, a new sense of artistic expression emerged that became distinctly Islamic in character shortly after the demise of the Umayyad dynasty.

As with the arts, the Umayyad period was also critical in the development of Islamic architecture. While earlier architectural traditions continued, the requirements of the new religion and customs of the new Arab rulers necessitated a different usage of space. In the case of religious buildings, the Umayyads often constructed their monuments on sites of historical or symbolic significance.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691), the first major Umayyad architectural undertaking completed under the patronage of the caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705), was built on a prominent site formerly occupied by Solomon's Temple and later associated with Muhammad's ascent to heaven. Other renowned religious buildings from the Umayyad period date from the reign of al-Walid (r. 705–15) and include the enlarged mosque in Medina (706–10), the former house of Muhammad.

Also significant are the mosques of Damascus (706), where the site of the former Roman temple and fourth-century Byzantine church dedicated to Saint John the Baptist was transformed into the congregational mosque of the Umayyad capital, and of Jerusalem (709–15). In terms of secular architecture, Umayyad desert palaces such as Mshatta, Qasr cAmra (Jordan), cAnjar (Lebanon), Khirbat al-Mafjar (Palestine), and Qasr al-Hayr East and West (Syria) (all ca. 700–750), are a testimony to the wealth of their patrons and the creativity of Umayyad architects.

link

peristiwa :

300 M - Pecahnya Empangan Maarib

570 M - Kelahiran Nabi Muhammad s.a.w.

610 M - Turun wahyu kepada Nabi Muhammad s.a.w. dan bermulalah zaman Islam

Sebelum kelahiran dan kerasulan Nabi Muhammad SAW, masyarakat Arab dikenali sebagai zaman jahiliyah. Perkataan jahiliyah berasal dari bahasa Arab dari perkataan jahala yang bererti bodoh, maka ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa masyarakat jahiliyah adalah masyarakat yang bodoh.

Jika masyarakat jahiliyah kita dikenali sebagai masyarakat bodoh dalam pengertian primitif yang tak mengenal pengetahuan atau budaya; ia membawa masalah yang harus dipertanggungjawabkan, kerana berdasarkan data sejarah, masyarakat Arab waktu itu juga telah memiliki nilai-nilai peradaban yang sederhana.

M. Quraish Shihab dalam Mukjizat Al Qur’an Ditinjau dari Aspek Kebahasaan, Isyarat Ilmiah, dan Pemberitaaan Ghaib (Mizan, 1999) menyebut beberapa pengetahuan yang dimiliki masyarakat Arab, diantaranya dalam bidang astronomi, tetapi terbatas pada penggunaan bintang untuk petunjuk jalan, atau mengetahui jenis musim. Kedua, bidang meteorologi iaitu mereka gunakan bidang ini untuk mengetahui cuaca seperti hujan serta sedikit tentang sejarah umat sekitarnya.

Selain itu, bidang perubatan berdasarkan pengalaman dan bidang dukun dan lain-lain. Akhir sekali, bahasa dan sastera sering diadakan musabaqah [perlumbaan] dalam penyusunan syair dan nasihat. Syair-syair yang membawa perkataan indah, digantung di Ka’bah, sebagai penghormatan kepada penggubahnya sekaligus untuk dapat dinikmati oleh yang melihat atau membacanya. Penyair mendapat kedudukan yang istimewa. Mereka dinilai sebagai pembela kaumnya. Dengan syair mereka mengangkat reputasi satu kaum atau seseorang dan juga sebaliknya, ia juga dapat menjatuhkannya.

Dalam sebuah hadis, Nabi SAW bersabda: “Kami umat yang ummiy, kami tidak pandai menulis, tidak juga pandai berhitung. Bulan, begini, begini, dan begini.” (Beliau menggunakan jari-jari kedua tangannya untuk mengisyaratkan angka dua puluh sembilan atau tiga puluh hari). [HR. Muslim dan An Nasa’ai]

Kemampuan dari segi pembacaan dan penulisan sangat minima serta masyarakat arab waktu itu juga tidak mahir mengira. Jumlah yang boleh di baca dan tulis sangat terbatas. Oleh kerana itu mereka memerlukan kecerdasan dan kemampuan seseorang ilmiah.

Oleh kerana tahap kemampuan masyarakat arab dalam pembacaan, penulisan dan pengiraan sangat minima, mereka dipanggil jahiliyah. Tentu tidak, karena Nabi Muhammad SAW sendiri termasuk yang tidak boleh membaca dan menulis.

Sumber Rujukan : link

In the Name of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful

"Is it (then that) the judgement of (the time of pagan) ignorance they desire?

And who (else) can be better than Allah to judge for a people of assure faith."

Holy Qur'an (5:50)

"Judgement is of two kinds -the judgement of Allah- the Great and Almighty - and

the judgement of the people of the ignorance (jahiliyah). So, whoever misses Allah's

judgement, surely will judge according to the judgement of the people of jahiliyah."

Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (a.s.)

Islam and Jahiliyah

Accordingly, 'jahiliyah' is a concept and a civilization. Besides, it is a mark with which we can differentiate the enemies of Islam through their different philosophical, mental ideologies and their various schools and social systems in each period and generation in history.

Whoever does not follow Islam, nor believes in it, nor conveys its message and the system of its life and call is ignorant and misguided even if he becomes changeable, pretends, practices hypocrisy, and uses misleading slogans.

The civil and historical fact is a clear evidence of the existence of two opposite blocs throughout history and presentation of human life- its past, its present and its future. These are: the bloc of faith and monotheism and the bloc of deviation, misguidance and global ignorance 'jahiliyah '.

Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.) was truthful when he said:

"Verily, there are two ways-the good way, and the evil way."

When we consider carefully the life of Allah's Messenger (s.a.w.), and his holy struggle 'jihad', we understand that he used this slogan against the 'jahiliyah' (ignorance) of his time. He also wanted this slogan to be the slogan of the whole humanity after him just as it was the slogan of the Prophets and the Apostles before him.

The Prophet (s.a.w.) conformed to this slogan truthfully both on the theoretical and practical levels. Concerning the theoretical level, he presented to mankind the most wonderful and greatest message and ideology. He also presented the best law and the most accurate, miraculous Divine system. This system is distinguished by justice, mercy, and equality. It responds to instinctive law and sound mental logic which aims to free mankind, destroy all ignorant slogans, and demolish their concepts, faiths, fables, and customs. Furthermore, this system aims to uproot all these bad backgrounds to create a social and ideological change.

On the practical level, Allah's Messenger (s.a.w.) firmly began to demolish the foundations of the ignorant society in order to establish the foundations of the happy Islamic society. He wanted Islam to prevail in that society and to make one unified Muslim nation, free from the ignorant marks in thinking, faith, law, morals, worship, and general human dealings.

The Holy Qur'an has continued to take care of this Prophetic construction and to support it with awareness and spiritual lawful maintenance to stress the importance of this Islamic line and protect its originality and purity from the ignorant ideas which may come into the pure Islamic life. So, Allah has addressed His great Prophet by telling him about those devious persons who try to demolish this marvellous Islamic construction and distort its originality and purity: Allah, the Exalted, says:

"Have you not observed those who think they believe in what has been sent down to you and what has been sent down before you? They intend to resort to the judgment of 'taghoot' (the Satan) though they have been commanded to deny him;..."

Holy Qur'an (4:60)

Allah revealed the address and the warning to his great Prophet to fix the originality of the Islamic life and concentrate its independence. In the meantime, Allah focused on carrying out a mental, lawful, practical unity to show the Muslims that the system of their life, the system of their judgement, and the way of their worship are clear in their religion. So, they must not resort to the tyrants to make them laws, regulations, and beliefs. That is because the tyrants deviate and mislead the Muslims from their faith and the way of their thinking.

The Holy Qur'an went on stressing to the Prophet (s.a.w.) to make him practise the process of application, construction, and social reform based on Islamic foundations. It showed him how to complete and perfect this construction. So, it addressed him condemning the deviation of some people and their cleaving to the ideas of 'jahiliyah' and its judgement and laws.

Thus, the main aim is to denote clearly the features of the two the way of 'jahiliyah' (global ignorance) and the way of Islam-and also to make the Muslim know that human history, everywhere and everytime, follows two lines opposite to each other in aims and motives. Besides, human conflict goes around two axes opposite in their trends and different in their contents and purposes. These two axes are Islam and 'jahiliyah'. Furthermore, a Muslim should know that all different titles and slogans such as schools of thought, calls to act, philosophies and theories, which appeared throughout the history of mankind, including contemporary ones or those that may appear in the future are none other than 'jahiliyah' All these are only various sides and recurring forms of the conflict which go on between 'jahiliyah' (global ignorance) and belief represented by Islam, the religion of all Prophets and mankind.

For this reason, the religious Muslim person should know the nature of the conflict between 'jahiliyah' and Islam, and not be cheated when the names and titles are changed, for they are different forms for one ignorant fact. Also he must regard the dissidents of Islam as ignorant persons repeating the 'jahiliyah' (ignorance) of the ancient nations and peoples in new created titles and forms.

Sumber Rujukan : link

KEWUJUDAN KERAJAAN KECIL ANDALUSIA MEMBAWA KERUNTUHAN

Halaman Masjid Ummaiyyah di Damsyikmenjadikannya salah satu simbol kekuatan Kerajaan Bani Ummaiyyah.

Empayar kekuasaan Kerajaan Bani Ummaiyyah

Kerajaan-kerajaan kecil yang muncul di andalusia terbentuk apabila kepimpinan utama mula lemah. Lebih tepat, ia rentetan daripada kelemahan pemimpin dikalangan bani umaiyyah yang menguasai andalusia selepas daripada khalifah al-mustansar billah (961 – 976m). Bermula dari itu, Andalusia yang diperintah oleh satu kerajaan, berpecah menjadi banyak daerah yang membentuk lebih daripada 20 kerajaan-kerajaan kecil.

Pembentukan kerajaan-kerajaan kecil ini yang turut dikenali sebagai Muluk al-tawa’if wujud disebabkan oleh antaranya semangat puak, iaitu untuk mengangkat kaum sendiri. Mereka seolah-olah secara tidak langsung berpegang kepada semangat ukhuwwah islamiyyah dan seakan menjurus kepada perkauman sesama sendiri.

Fenomena ini berlaku setelah pucuk pimpinan di Cordova menghadapi masalah dalaman iaitu bergaduh dan bercakaran, malah ada yang saling menindas untuk merebut kuasa khalifah. Secara tidak lansung, kerajaan-kerajaan kecil ini wujud pada dekad akhir pemerintahan bani umayyah di andalusia, iaitu kira-kira sekitar tahun 403 h /1012 m.

Namun bibit-bibit perpecahan awal telah pun wujud atau dapat dilihat 20 tahun lebih awal iaitu semasa Khalifah Hisham II memegang tampuk pemerintahan. Perpecahan adalah jelas ketara setelah Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Amir meninggal dunia pada tahun 392H/ 1002 M.

Sumber Rujukan : link

The Ottoman Empire

Sunday, 7 September 2014

Ottomans had a profound impact on the continent was shocked by the disaster fourteenth and fifteenth. Ottoman Empire achieved military victories led Western Europeans fear that ongoing Ottoman success would collapse the political and social infrastructure in the West and bring fall Christians. Is an historic threat can not be ignored and the Europeans mounted crusades against the Ottomans in 1366, 1396, and 1444, but was not successful.

Ottomans continued to conquer new territories.

One of the few Turkic tribes that migrated from the steppes of Central Asia, the Ottomans were initially a nomadic people who followed a primitive shamanistic religion. Contact with various settled peoples led to the introduction of Islam and under Islamic influence, the Turks acquired their greatest fighting tradition, that the Gazi warriors. Trained and skilled, Gazi warriors fought to conquer the infidel, acquiring land and wealth in the process. Although Gazi warriors fighting for Islam, the greatest military asset of the Ottoman Empire is standing paid army of Christian soldiers, Janissaries.

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire, political factions within Byzantium employed the Ottoman Turks and the janissaries as mercenaries in their own struggles for imperial supremacy. In 1340, the request is not entitled to assistance in the uprising against the Ottoman emperor granted an excuse to attack the Ottoman Thrace on the northern border of the Byzantine Empire.

Conquest of Thrace gave the Ottomans a foothold in Europe's future campaign to the Balkans and Greece were launched and Adrianople (Edirne) became the Ottoman capital in 1366. Ottoman empire building that took in Anatolia and increasingly larger share of the Byzantine territories in Eastern Europe and Asia small. Ottoman expansion into Europe is also carried out in the 14th century's. Gallipoli was conquered in 1354 and destroyed vast crusaders in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. disaster was so great that the knights of Western Europe is not advisable to launch a new expedition against the Turks.

The emergence of the Tatars under Tamerlane early in the fifteenth century temporarily delayed but progress soon Ottoman attack on Byzantium and Eastern Europe resumed. A Hungarian - Polish army was decimated at Varna in 1444 by Murad II and Ottoman conquest is almost uncontrollable during the reign of his son, Mehmed II the Conqueror (1432-1481).

Constantinople itself was captured in 1453, sent shock waves throughout Europe, and its name was changed to Istanbul. With the fall of Byzantium, a wave of Byzantine refugees fled to the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge of classical and Hellenistic provide additional impetus to the growth of humanity from the Renaissance. Athens fell in 1456 and Belgrade narrowly escaped capture when a farmer led by the Hungarian Janos Hunyadi held siege in the same year, however, Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia, and the Khanate of Crimea were all under Ottoman control by this 1478. Turkey commanded the Black Sea and major trade route north Aegean and many were closed with European lines. Islamic threat loomed larger when stepping Ottomans were established in Otranto in Italy in 1480.

Despite the presence of Turkey in Italy did not last long, it seemed as if Rome itself must soon fall into the hands of Islam. In 1529, the Ottomans had moved up the Danube and besieged Vienna. The siege was unsuccessful and the Turks began to retreat. Although the Ottomans continued to scare until the 16th century, internal struggles began to decline once the military supremacy of the Empire Uthmaniyyah.Murad II attempted to limit the influence of the aristocracy and Gazi to upgrade faithful former slaves and janissaries to administrative positions. These administrators came to provide an alternative voice to the aristocracy and, as a result, Sultan Murad II and successive able to play one faction against the other, the features that came to symbolize the Ottoman Empire. Power janissaries often overrode a weak sultan and the elite military force occasionally acted as "king-makers".

Ottoman Empire managed to produce effective leaders in the late Middle Ages and a comprehensive government policy developed. Despite the difficulties of succession and administrative control, the Ottomans have several advantages that contribute to their success, wealth of the Empire become the most important asset. As the Ottoman Empire expanded, it gained control of the trade routes to the East and many European powers such as Venice and Genoa, paid large sums for the privilege of access to this route. Despite the cruelty of the "infidel Turk" struck fear into the hearts of all Christians in the late Middle Ages, in actuality, the Ottomans generally allowed religious groups to continue to practice their own religion in the conquered territories. They also tend to maintain the established feudal institutions and, in many cases, allowing the coexistence of legal codes to control groups of different ethnic and religious groups. Administrative system and their government is too advanced and very effective and most lands under Ottoman control were well managed at this time.

Sumber Rujukan: link